Preeclampsia - References

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Preeclampsia
Mother-to-be? Protect yourself and your baby from the serious complications associated with this pregnancy problem. According to research or other evidence, the following self-care steps may be helpful.
  • Get routine checkups

    Visit your prenatal provider regularly to prevent and control preeclampsia

  • Consider calcium

    Reduce your risks by taking 1,200 to1,500 mg a day of this essential nutrient

  • Don’t skip the salt

    Use normal amounts of salt and drink more water to maintain normal circulation

Also indexed as:
  • gestational hypertension,
  • preeclampsia,
  • pre-eclampsia,
  • pregnancy induced hypertension,
  • toxemia of pregnancy
Alternative Treatments

About this treatment

1. Myatt L, Miodovnik M. Prediction of preeclampsia. Semin Perinatol 1999;23:45–57.

2. Smith GN, Walker M, Tessier JL, Millar KG. Increased incidence of preeclampsia in women conceiving by intrauterine insemination with donor versus partner sperm for treatment of primary infertility. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;177:455–8.

3. Rey E, LeLorier J, Burgess E, et al. Report of the Canadian Hypertension Society Consensus Conference: 3. Pharmacologic treatment of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy. CMAJ 1997;157:1245–54.

4. Rath W Z. Treatment of hypertensive diseases in pregnancy—general recommendations and long-term oral therapy. Geburtshilfe Neonatol 1997;201:240–6 [in German].

5. Myatt L, Miodovnik M. Prediction of preeclampsia. Semin Perinatol 1999;23:45–57.

6. Sibai B. Prevention of preeclampsia: a big disappointment. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:1275–8 [review].

7. Mounier-Vehier C, Equine O, Valat-Rigot AS, et al. Hypertensive syndromes in pregnancy. Physiopathology, definition and fetomaternal complications. Presse Med 1999;28:880–5 [in French].

8. Mounier-Vehier C, Equine O, Valat-Rigot AS, et al. Hypertensive syndromes in pregnancy. Physiopathology, definition and fetomaternal complications. Presse Med 1999;28:880–5 [in French].

9. Sibai BM, Ewell M, Levine RJ, et al. Risk factors associated with preeclampsia in healthy nulliparous women. The Calcium for Preeclampsia Prevention (CPEP) Study Group. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;177:1003–10.

10. Persson B, Hanson U. Neonatal morbidities in gestational diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care 1998;Suppl 2:B79–84.

11. Saudan P, Brown MA, Buddle ML, Jones M. Does gestational hypertension become pre-eclampsia? Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1998;105:1177–84.

12. Myatt L, Miodovnik M. Prediction of preeclampsia. Semin Perinatol 1999;23:45–57.

13. Sibai BM, Ewell M, Levine RJ, et al. Risk factors associated with preeclampsia in healthy nulliparous women. The Calcium for Preeclampsia Prevention (CPEP) Study Group. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1997;177:1003–10.

14. Myatt L, Miodovnik M. Prediction of preeclampsia. Semin Perinatol 1999;23:45–57.

15. Hojo M, August P. Calcium Metabolism in Preeclampsia: Supplementation may help. Medscape Womens Health 1997;2:5.

16. Mikhail MS, Anyaegbunam A, Garfinkel D, et al. Preeclampsia and antioxidant nutrients: decreased plasma levels of reduced ascorbic acid, alpha-tocopherol and beta carotene in women with preeclampsia. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1994;171:150–7.

17. Gulmezoglu AM, Hofmeyr GJ, Oosthuisen MM. Antioxidants in the treatment of severe pre-eclampsia: an explanatory randomised controlled trial. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1997;104:689–96.

18. Valsecchi L, Fausto A, Grazioli V. Severe preeclampsia and antioxidant nutrients. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1995;173:673 [letter].

19. Bianco A, Stone J, Lynch L, et al. Pregnancy outcome at age 40 and older. Obstet Gynecol 1996;87:917–22.

20. Marcoux S, Berube S, Brisson C, Mondor M. Job strain and pregnancy-induced hypertension. Epidemiology 1999;10:376–82.

21. Wergeland E, Strand K. Work pace control and pregnancy health in a population-based sample of employed women in Norway. Scand J Work Environ Health 1998;24:206–12.

22. Mounier-Vehier C, Equine O, Valat-Rigot AS, et al. Hypertensive syndromes in pregnancy. Physiopathology, definition and fetomaternal complications. Presse Med 1999;28:880–5 [in French].

23. Rath W Z. Treatment of hypertensive diseases in pregnancy—general recommendations and long-term oral therapy. Geburtshilfe Neonatol 1997;201:240–6 [in German].

24. Rey E, LeLorier J, Burgess E, et al. Report of the Canadian Hypertension Society Consensus Conference: 3. Pharmacologic treatment of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy. CMAJ 1997;157:1245–54.

25. Sibai BM, Frangieh AY. Management of severe preeclampsia. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 1996;8(2):110–3.

26. Franx A, Steegers EA, de Boo T, et al. Sodium-blood pressure interrelationship in pregnancy. J Hum Hypertens 1999;13:159–66.

27. Moutquin JM, Garner PR, Burrows RF, et al. Report of the Canadian Hypertension Society Consensus Conference: 2. Nonpharmacologic management and prevention of hypertensive disorders in pregnancy. CMAJ 1997;157:907–19.

28. Williams MA, King IB, Sorensen TK, et al. Risk of preeclampsia in relation to elaidic acid (trans fatty acid) in maternal erythrocytes. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1998;46:84–7.

29. Teran E, Hernandez I, Nieto B, et al. Coenzyme Q10 supplementation during pregnancy reduces the risk of pre-eclampsia. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 2009;105:43–5.

30. Leeda M, Riyazi N, de Vries JI, et al. Effects of folic acid and vitamin B6 supplementation on women with hyperhomocysteinemia and a history of preeclampsia or fetal growth restriction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:135–9.

31. Powers RW, Evans RW, Majors AK, et al. Plasma homocysteine concentration is increased in preeclampsia and is associated with evidence of endothelial activation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:1605–11.

32. Rajkovic A, Catalano PM, Malinow MR. Elevated homocyst(e)ine levels with preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 1997;90:168–71.

33. Laivuori H, Kaaja R, Turpeinen U, et al. Plasma homocysteine levels elevated and inversely related to insulin sensitivity in preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 1999;93:489–93.

34. Sorensen TK, Malinow MR, Williams MA, et al. Elevated second-trimester serum homocyst(e)ine levels and subsequent risk of preeclampsia. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1999;48:98–103.

35. Powers RW, Evans RW, Majors AK, et al. Plasma homocysteine concentration is increased in preeclampsia and is associated with evidence of endothelial activation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:1605–11.

36. Ray JG, Laskin CA. Folic acid and homocyst(e)ine metabolic defects and the risk of placental abruption, pre-eclampsia and spontaneous pregnancy loss: A systematic review. Placenta 1999;20:519–29 [review].

37. Sorensen TK, Malinow MR, Williams MA, et al. Elevated second-trimester serum homocyst(e)ine levels and subsequent risk of preeclampsia. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1999;48:98–103.

38. Roberts JM. Endothelial dysfunction in preeclampsia. Semin Reprod Endocrinol 1998;16:5–15.

39. Hayman R, Brockelsby J, Kenny L, Baker P. Preeclampsia: the endothelium, circulating factor(s) and vascular endothelial growth factor. J Soc Gynecol Investig 1999;6:3–10.

40. Lyall F, Greer IA. The vascular endothelium in normal pregnancy and pre-eclampsia. Rev Reprod 1996;1:107–16.

41. Roberts JM, Redman CWG. Pre-eclampsia: more than pregnancy-induced hypertension. Lancet 1994;341:1447–54.

42. Taylor RN, de Groot CJ, Cho YK, Lim KH. Circulating factors as markers and mediators of endothelial cell dysfunction in preeclampsia. Semin Reprod Endocrinol 1998;16:17–31.

43. Leeda M, Riyazi N, de Vries JI, et al. Effects of folic acid and vitamin B6 supplementation on women with hyperhomocysteinemia and a history of preeclampsia or fetal growth restriction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:135–9.

44. Wachstein M, Graffeo LW. Influence of Vitamin B6 on the incidence of preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 1956;8:177–80.

45. Sibai BM. Prevention of preeclampsia: A big disappointment. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:1275–8 [review].

46. Williams MA, Zingheim RW, King IB, Zebelman AM. Omega-3 fatty acids in maternal erythrocytes and risk for preeclampsia. Epidemiology 1995;6:232–7.

47. Laivuori H, Hovatta O, Viinikka L, Ylikorkala O. Dietary supplementation with primrose oil or fish oil does not change urinary excretion of prostacyclin and thromboxane metabolites in pre-eclamptic women. Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids 1993;49:691–4.

48. Onwude JL, Lilford RJ, Hjartardottier H, et. al. A randomised double blind placebo controlled trial of fish oil in high risk pregnancy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1995;109:95–100.

49. Salvig JD, Olsen SF, Secher NJ. Effects of fish oil supplementation in late pregnancy on blood pressure: a randomised controlled trial. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1996;103:529–33.

50. Wynn A, Wynn M. Magnesium and other nutrient deficiencies as possible causes of hypertension and low birth weight. Nutr Health 1988;6:69–88.

51. Spatling L, Spatling G. Magnesium supplementation in pregnancy: a double-blind study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1988;950:120–5.

52. Sibai BM, Villar MA, Bray E. Magnesium supplementation during pregnancy: a double-blind randomized controlled clinical trial. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:115–9.

53. Standley CA, Whitty JE, Mason BA, Cotton DB. Serum ionized magnesium levels in normal and preeclamptic gestation. Obstet Gynecol 1997;89:24–7.

54. Handwerker SM, Altura BT, Altura BM. Ionized serum magnesium and potassium levels in pregnant women with preeclampsia and eclampsia. J Reprod Med 1995;40:201–8.

55. Conradt A, Weidinger H, Algayer G. Magnesium deficiency, a possible cause of pre-eclampsia: reduction of frequency of premature rupture of membranes and premature or small-for-date deliveries after magnesium supplementation. J Am Coll Nutr 1985;4:321.

56. Spatling L, Spatling G. Magnesium supplementation in pregnancy: a double-blind study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1988;950:120–5.

57. Wacker J, Fruhauf J, Schulz M, et al. Riboflavin deficiency and preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 2000;96:38–44.

58. Leeda M, Riyazi N, de Vries JI, et al. Effects of folic acid and vitamin B6 supplementation on women with hyperhomocysteinemia and a history of preeclampsia or fetal growth restriction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:135–9.

59. Powers RW, Evans RW, Majors AK, et al. Plasma homocysteine concentration is increased in preeclampsia and is associated with evidence of endothelial activation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:1605–11.

60. Rajkovic A, Catalano PM, Malinow MR. Elevated homocyst(e)ine levels with preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 1997;90:168–71.

61. Laivuori H, Kaaja R, Turpeinen U, et al. Plasma homocysteine levels elevated and inversely related to insulin sensitivity in preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 1999;93:489–93.

62. Sorensen TK, Malinow MR, Williams MA, et al. Elevated second-trimester serum homocyst(e)ine levels and subsequent risk of preeclampsia. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1999;48:98–103.

63. Powers RW, Evans RW, Majors AK, et al. Plasma homocysteine concentration is increased in preeclampsia and is associated with evidence of endothelial activation. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:1605–11.

64. Ray JG, Laskin CA. Folic acid and homocyst(e)ine metabolic defects and the risk of placental abruption, pre-eclampsia and spontaneous pregnancy loss: A systematic review. Placenta 1999;20:519–29 [review].

65. Sorensen TK, Malinow MR, Williams MA, et al. Elevated second-trimester serum homocyst(e)ine levels and subsequent risk of preeclampsia. Gynecol Obstet Invest 1999;48:98–103.

66. Roberts JM. Endothelial dysfunction in preeclampsia. Semin Reprod Endocrinol 1998;16:5–15.

67. Hayman R, Brockelsby J, Kenny L, Baker P. Preeclampsia: the endothelium, circulating factor(s) and vascular endothelial growth factor. J Soc Gynecol Investig 1999;6:3–10.

68. Lyall F, Greer IA. The vascular endothelium in normal pregnancy and pre-eclampsia. Rev Reprod 1996;1:107–16.

69. Roberts JM, Redman CWG. Pre-eclampsia: more than pregnancy-induced hypertension. Lancet 1994;341:1447–54.

70. Taylor RN, de Groot CJ, Cho YK, Lim KH. Circulating factors as markers and mediators of endothelial cell dysfunction in preeclampsia. Semin Reprod Endocrinol 1998;16:17–31.

71. Leeda M, Riyazi N, de Vries JI, et al. Effects of folic acid and vitamin B6 supplementation on women with hyperhomocysteinemia and a history of preeclampsia or fetal growth restriction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998;179:135–9.

72. Wachstein M, Graffeo LW. Influence of Vitamin B6 on the incidence of preeclampsia. Obstet Gynecol 1956;8:177–80.

73. Lazebnik N, Kuhnert BR, Kuhnert PM. Zinc, cadmium, and hypertension in parturient women. J Obstet Gynecol 1989;161:437–40.

74. Cherry FF, Bennett EA, Bazzano GS, et al. Plasma zinc in hypertension/toxemia and other reproductive variables in adolescent pregnancy. Am J Clin Nutr 1981;34:2367–75.

75. Simmer K, Iles CA, James C, Thompson RP. Are iron-folate supplements harmful? Am J Clin Nutr 1987;45:122–5.

76. Hunt IF, Murphy NJ, Cleaver AE, et al. Zinc supplementation during pregnancy: effects on selected blood constituents and on progress and outcome of pregnancy in low-income women of Mexican descent. Am J Clin Nutr 1984;40:508–21.

77. Mahomed K, James DK, Golding J, McCabe R. Zinc supplementation during pregnancy: a double-blind randomised controlled trial. BMJ 1989;299:826–9.

78. Jonsson B, Hauge B, Larsen MF, Hald F. Zinc supplementation during pregnancy: a double blind randomised controlled trial. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1996;75:725–9.

Last Review: 05-11-2011

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The information presented in Aisle7 is for informational purposes only. It is based on scientific studies (human, animal, or in vitro), clinical experience, or traditional usage as cited in each article. The results reported may not necessarily occur in all individuals. Self-treatment is not recommended for life-threatening conditions that require medical treatment under a doctor's care. For many of the conditions discussed, treatment with prescription or over the counter medication is also available. Consult your doctor, practitioner, and/or pharmacist for any health problem and before using any supplements or before making any changes in prescribed medications. Information expires June 2011.

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